hH

[email protected] (Huntley K Williams)

13/07/2012 2:30 PM

What is the softest wood besides balsam for carving?

What is a good wood for a beginner to carve?


This topic has 32 replies

FH

Father Haskell

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

16/07/2012 5:34 PM

On Jul 14, 9:30=A0am, Casper <[email protected]> wrote:

> You can carve virtually any wood, it just depends on how hard you want
> to work. I have carved almost everything, except black locust, which
> is extremely hard.

Chainsaw and angle grinder.

JM

John McGaw

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

13/07/2012 7:32 PM

On 7/13/2012 5:30 PM, Huntley K Williams wrote:
> What is a good wood for a beginner to carve?
>
As others have written basswood is a traditional carving wood that has many
favorable characteristics. Depending on your location you might also find
it called lime or tilia.

Dt

DerbyDad03

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

03/08/2019 9:45 AM

On Saturday, August 3, 2019 at 8:13:12 AM UTC-4, Casper wrote:
> >[email protected] was heard to mutter:
> >Balsam poplar is actually the name of one of the lightest and softest woods.
>
> Skip balsa. It's great for models but rought to carve.
>
> Easy woods are basswood, butternut, jelutong, or cottonwood. You can
> carve pine but it gets rough. Maple, walnut and cherry are good but
> harder. Basswood is recommended for beginners. Tight grain, usually
> blemish free, and very easy to carve by hand.

7 years later, I wonder if the OP is still sitting there, knife in hand,
waiting for an answer. ;-)

FH

Father Haskell

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

13/07/2012 6:37 PM

On Jul 13, 9:35=A0pm, F Murtz <[email protected]> wrote:
> Huntley K Williams wrote:
> > What is a good wood for a beginner to carve?
>
> A matter of useless information and a digression,Balsa is a
> hardwood,look it up.

Also the strongest wood for its weight.

ME

Martin Eastburn

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

22/06/2013 10:28 PM

Catalpa tree So I hear. Some say it is string like - but
the wood is white and tight small grain. Fishing worms and Fishing
lures are made with the aid of the tree.

Martin

On 6/22/2013 1:16 PM, Edward A. Falk wrote:
> In article <[email protected]>,
> G. Ross <[email protected]> wrote:
>>
>> Basswood is probably the better for carving since it is moderately
>> soft and cuts well. Half of learning to carve is learning to sharpen
>> your tools. The other half is practice.
>
> Been carving cedar lately; not happy with the results. It tears
> too easily. I'll try some harder woods next.
>

LH

"Lew Hodgett"

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

13/07/2012 2:52 PM


"Huntley K Williams" wrote:

> What is a good wood for a beginner to carve?
--------------------
Try bass wood.


--
Have fun


Lew


ww

whit3rd

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

24/06/2013 4:09 PM

On Friday, July 13, 2012 8:51:36 PM UTC-4, Bill wrote:
> G. Ross wrote:

> ... A disappointing thing you learn, I think, is that,
>
> historically, woodcarvers were pretty far down the totem pole.

Oh, but the lower figures on the totem pole are the biggest ones,
the most important! That's consistent with woodcarvers down
low, the totem pole artist knows he and his fellows are the key players...

a

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

02/08/2019 8:33 PM

Balsam poplar is actually the name of one of the lightest and softest woods.

JG

"John Grossbohlin"

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

16/07/2012 6:37 PM


"Huntley K Williams" <[email protected]> wrote in message
news:[email protected]...
> What is a good wood for a beginner to carve?
>

As others have mentioned basswood is a good type. I've found that air dried
clear white pine and air dried walnut carve pretty nice. I've cut thousands
of carving blanks for the Boy Scout camp out of those woods. Kiln dried
pine is generally too hard but kiln dried walnut is OK.

I'd avoid things that don't have grain and a fibrous structure if you are
interested in learning wood carving. As such, things like soap, linoleum and
the various closed cell foams should be avoided. Learning to work with grain
is a very important aspect of learning to carve.

Mary May and Rick Butz were presenters at my club's woodworking show last
spring, and Mary was on Roy's show last year. Take a look at this video for
discussion of the grain issues and how to deal with them.

http://www.pbs.org/woodwrightsshop/video/2900/2905.html

John



GR

"G. Ross"

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

13/07/2012 5:52 PM

Huntley K Williams wrote:
> What is a good wood for a beginner to carve?
>
I assumed you meant Balsa. very soft woods like balsa are not good
for learning carving. Soft woods require an extremely sharp tool,
otherwise they tend to fray.

Basswood is probably the better for carving since it is moderately
soft and cuts well. Half of learning to carve is learning to sharpen
your tools. The other half is practice.

--
G.W. Ross

I tried being reasonable once. I
didn't like it!





Hh

"HeyBub"

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

16/07/2012 7:26 AM

Huntley K Williams wrote:
> What is a good wood for a beginner to carve?

For practice, think soap. (The washing kind, not a wood.)

FM

F Murtz

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

14/07/2012 11:35 AM

Huntley K Williams wrote:
> What is a good wood for a beginner to carve?
>
A matter of useless information and a digression,Balsa is a
hardwood,look it up.

DM

Doug Miller

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

14/07/2012 2:39 AM

"Cliff H" <[email protected]> wrote in news:[email protected]:

>
> "Huntley K Williams" <[email protected]> wrote in message
> news:[email protected]...
>> What is a good wood for a beginner to carve?
>>
>
> I assume you mean balsa but I think basswood has always been the choice for
> carvers.

Indeed it has. My father-in-law took up carving as a retirement hobby about thirty years ago,
and is amazingly good at it. Some time I'll post pics of some of his work.

Anyway... he's carved one piece in walnut, one in beech, and one in catalpa, that I know of. As
far as I know, everything else -- hundreds of pieces -- is basswood.

DW

Doug White

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

16/07/2012 10:09 PM

"HeyBub" <[email protected]> wrote in news:PLqdnRN-
[email protected]:

> Huntley K Williams wrote:
>> What is a good wood for a beginner to carve?
>
> For practice, think soap. (The washing kind, not a wood.)

Aspen runs pretty close. I grew up in northern New Mexico, and we'd get
occasional pieces from downed trees. Very soft, and carved quite nicely.
I have no idea if it's available commercially.

Doug White

kk

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

13/07/2012 9:48 PM

On Sat, 14 Jul 2012 11:35:40 +1000, F Murtz <[email protected]> wrote:

>Huntley K Williams wrote:
>> What is a good wood for a beginner to carve?
>>
>A matter of useless information and a digression,Balsa is a
>hardwood,look it up.

In that it's not a conifer, sure.

CH

"Cliff H"

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

13/07/2012 6:06 PM


"Huntley K Williams" <[email protected]> wrote in message
news:[email protected]...
> What is a good wood for a beginner to carve?
>

I assume you mean balsa but I think basswood has always been the choice for
carvers.

dd

"dadiOH"

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

13/07/2012 7:18 PM

Huntley K Williams wrote:
> What is a good wood for a beginner to carve?

Butternut used to be popular. Prettier than bass wood.

--

dadiOH
____________________________

Winters getting colder? Tired of the rat race?
Maybe just ready for a change? Check it out...
http://www.floridaloghouse.net

BB

Bill

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

13/07/2012 8:51 PM

G. Ross wrote:
> Huntley K Williams wrote:
>> What is a good wood for a beginner to carve?
>>
> I assumed you meant Balsa. very soft woods like balsa are not good for
> learning carving. Soft woods require an extremely sharp tool, otherwise
> they tend to fray.
>
> Basswood is probably the better for carving since it is moderately soft
> and cuts well. Half of learning to carve is learning to sharpen your
> tools. The other half is practice.
>

And the other half is learning the history and culture, at least as much
as possible. A disappointing thing you learn, I think, is that,
historically, woodcarvers were pretty far down the totem pole. For
several decades now, I think one of the more profitable aspects of it is
in teaching others to do it. The beauty of the stylized Acanthus leaves
changed my life--I have two books dedicated solely to them (which in
some ways I find silly when I think about it). That's been my secret,
so please keep it under your hat.

Bill

BB

Bill

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

13/07/2012 11:52 PM

Larry Jaques wrote:
> On Fri, 13 Jul 2012 20:51:36 -0400, Bill <[email protected]> wrote:
>
>> G. Ross wrote:
>>> Huntley K Williams wrote:
>>>> What is a good wood for a beginner to carve?
>>>>
>>> I assumed you meant Balsa. very soft woods like balsa are not good for
>>> learning carving. Soft woods require an extremely sharp tool, otherwise
>>> they tend to fray.
>>>
>>> Basswood is probably the better for carving since it is moderately soft
>>> and cuts well. Half of learning to carve is learning to sharpen your
>>> tools. The other half is practice.
>>>
>>
>> And the other half is learning the history and culture, at least as much
>> as possible. A disappointing thing you learn, I think, is that,
>> historically, woodcarvers were pretty far down the totem pole. For
>
> +1
>
>
>> several decades now, I think one of the more profitable aspects of it is
>> in teaching others to do it. The beauty of the stylized Acanthus leaves
>> changed my life--I have two books dedicated solely to them (which in
>> some ways I find silly when I think about it). That's been my secret,
>> so please keep it under your hat.
>
> Names, please! I bought a couple of real acanthus plants and was
> disappointed that they don't look like the stylized leaves in old
> carvings. I like the plants, though.
>
> My favorite book is by Dick Onians. (Huntley, $1.28 at Amazon)
> http://tinyurl.com/8327srm

I'm reading that one now (slowly, I've got other fish in the pan). It's
better than the other 6 or 7 books on carving I have read. I subscribe
to WoodCarving magazine, published in England, by GMC: Guild of Master
Craftsmen, and am a member of a local carving club, but that doesn't
mean I carve alot or have done a lot of carving.

Here is one I bought myself for Christmas, it's not as deep, I think, as
the following one, but it has some nice photos.

http://www.amazon.com/Acanthus-Carving-Hans-Sandom-Yorburg/dp/0764335065/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1342237066&sr=8-1&keywords=woodcarving+acanthus

Being written long ago, this one is a free download from Google/books.
I just came upon it last week.

http://www.amazon.com/drawing-acanthus-description-ornamental-foliage/dp/1177209330/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1342237031&sr=8-1&keywords=acanthus


Larry, I was definitely disappointed by the appearance of the real
Acanthus plants too! That just shows what you can get away with when
you "stylize" something. : )

Cheers,
Bill

>
> --
> Live in the sunshine, swim the sea, drink the wild air…
> -- Ralph Waldo Emerson
>

BB

Bill

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

13/07/2012 11:54 PM

[email protected] wrote:
> On Sat, 14 Jul 2012 11:35:40 +1000, F Murtz <[email protected]> wrote:
>
>> Huntley K Williams wrote:
>>> What is a good wood for a beginner to carve?
>>>
>> A matter of useless information and a digression,Balsa is a
>> hardwood,look it up.
>
> In that it's not a conifer, sure.
>

That's not actually the technical distinction between hardwood and
softwood. Many people just think it is.

BB

Bill

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

14/07/2012 12:48 AM

[email protected] wrote:
> On Fri, 13 Jul 2012 23:54:45 -0400, Bill <[email protected]> wrote:
>
>> [email protected] wrote:
>>> On Sat, 14 Jul 2012 11:35:40 +1000, F Murtz <[email protected]> wrote:
>>>
>>>> Huntley K Williams wrote:
>>>>> What is a good wood for a beginner to carve?
>>>>>
>>>> A matter of useless information and a digression,Balsa is a
>>>> hardwood,look it up.
>>>
>>> In that it's not a conifer, sure.
>>>
>>
>> That's not actually the technical distinction between hardwood and
>> softwood. Many people just think it is.
>
> Mr. Webster, too, evidently:
> http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hardwood
>
> Definition of HARDWOOD
> 1: the wood of an angiospermous tree as distinguished from that of a
> coniferous tree
> 2: a tree that yields hardwood
> 3: a basketball court
>
>
> ...or:
>
> http://www.yourdictionary.com/hardwood
> hardwood
>
> noun
>
> 1. any tough, heavy timber with a compact texture
> 2. Forestry the wood of an angiosperm possessing true vessels, in contrast
> to the softwood of a gymnosperm, which lacks vessels

I think the vessels, or lack there of, are distinguished by whether the
seeds of a tree have a "seed covering" or not. A book I lave lists
several conflicts with using coniferous at the distinction. I think
Balsa was one of them, but I'll have to double-check. Maybe the
biologists have learned something new or changed their mind since the
book I was using for a reference was published?

Regards,
Bill


> 3. a tree yielding hardwood
>

BB

Bill

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

14/07/2012 9:43 AM

Larry Jaques wrote:

>>> My favorite book is by Dick Onians. (Huntley, $1.28 at Amazon)
>>> http://tinyurl.com/8327srm


On pp. 32-33 of this book, he provides the basis of the two definitions
for the terms softwood and hardwood that krw and I were discussing in a
subthread here: The historically "common" one, and the "biological" one.
These papes contain the most readable distinction between softwood and
hardwood that I have seen.

fE

[email protected] (Edward A. Falk)

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

22/06/2013 6:16 PM

In article <[email protected]>,
G. Ross <[email protected]> wrote:
>
>Basswood is probably the better for carving since it is moderately
>soft and cuts well. Half of learning to carve is learning to sharpen
>your tools. The other half is practice.

Been carving cedar lately; not happy with the results. It tears
too easily. I'll try some harder woods next.

--
-Ed Falk, [email protected]
http://thespamdiaries.blogspot.com/

LJ

Larry Jaques

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

13/07/2012 7:15 PM

On Fri, 13 Jul 2012 14:30:43 -0700, [email protected]
(Huntley K Williams) wrote:

>What is a good wood for a beginner to carve?

Balsa, poplar/cottonwood, Basswood, or anything free (and fresh.) <g>

Douglas fir is cheap and soft when wet, but hardens up like iron.
Poplar is similar. Dry, they're a beeyotch to carve.

--
Live in the sunshine, swim the sea, drink the wild air…
-- Ralph Waldo Emerson

LJ

Larry Jaques

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

14/07/2012 6:06 AM

On Fri, 13 Jul 2012 23:52:40 -0400, Bill <[email protected]> wrote:

>Larry Jaques wrote:
>> On Fri, 13 Jul 2012 20:51:36 -0400, Bill <[email protected]> wrote:
>>
>>> G. Ross wrote:
>>>> Huntley K Williams wrote:
>>>>> What is a good wood for a beginner to carve?
>>>>>
>>>> I assumed you meant Balsa. very soft woods like balsa are not good for
>>>> learning carving. Soft woods require an extremely sharp tool, otherwise
>>>> they tend to fray.
>>>>
>>>> Basswood is probably the better for carving since it is moderately soft
>>>> and cuts well. Half of learning to carve is learning to sharpen your
>>>> tools. The other half is practice.
>>>>
>>>
>>> And the other half is learning the history and culture, at least as much
>>> as possible. A disappointing thing you learn, I think, is that,
>>> historically, woodcarvers were pretty far down the totem pole. For
>>
>> +1
>>
>>
>>> several decades now, I think one of the more profitable aspects of it is
>>> in teaching others to do it. The beauty of the stylized Acanthus leaves
>>> changed my life--I have two books dedicated solely to them (which in
>>> some ways I find silly when I think about it). That's been my secret,
>>> so please keep it under your hat.
>>
>> Names, please! I bought a couple of real acanthus plants and was
>> disappointed that they don't look like the stylized leaves in old
>> carvings. I like the plants, though.
>>
>> My favorite book is by Dick Onians. (Huntley, $1.28 at Amazon)
>> http://tinyurl.com/8327srm
>
>I'm reading that one now (slowly, I've got other fish in the pan). It's
>better than the other 6 or 7 books on carving I have read. I subscribe
>to WoodCarving magazine, published in England, by GMC: Guild of Master
>Craftsmen, and am a member of a local carving club, but that doesn't
>mean I carve alot or have done a lot of carving.

Ditto.


>Here is one I bought myself for Christmas, it's not as deep, I think, as
>the following one, but it has some nice photos.
>
>http://www.amazon.com/Acanthus-Carving-Hans-Sandom-Yorburg/dp/0764335065/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1342237066&sr=8-1&keywords=woodcarving+acanthus

I saw that one yesterday on Amazon.


>Being written long ago, this one is a free download from Google/books.
>I just came upon it last week.
>
>http://www.amazon.com/drawing-acanthus-description-ornamental-foliage/dp/1177209330/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1342237031&sr=8-1&keywords=acanthus

This one, too. I'll go Google Play it...


>Larry, I was definitely disappointed by the appearance of the real
>Acanthus plants too! That just shows what you can get away with when
>you "stylize" something. : )

Yessiree.

--
Live in the sunshine, swim the sea, drink the wild air…
-- Ralph Waldo Emerson

Cc

Casper

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

14/07/2012 9:30 AM

>What is a good wood for a beginner to carve?
>Huntley K Williams

Balsa wood is great for models , like planes, that need to be very
light. For woodcarving, the preferred wood is Tilia or Lime, otherwise
known as Basswood. It is a hardwood species that has very tight grain
making it very appealing to look at and easy to carve.

Another wood is Tupelo, having virtually the same characteristics of
Basswood. Other woods with tight grain and relatively easy to carve
are Butternut (although getting harder to find), Chestnut and some
fruitwoods.

You can carve virtually any wood, it just depends on how hard you want
to work. I have carved almost everything, except black locust, which
is extremely hard. I pretty much stop at pear for its color and
relative softness. I love walnut but large pieces are very tiring to
carve by hand.

If you use a power carver, then you can carve anything but remember to
research your wood species to ensure you are not breathing in toxic
dust as many species can be very toxic to the human body.

Hope this helps. :)
`Casper

Cc

Casper

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

04/08/2019 11:35 AM

DerbyDad03 <[email protected]> was heard to mutter:
>7 years later, I wonder if the OP is still sitting there, knife in hand,
>waiting for an answer. ;-)

If so, it explains a lot.
"Train your mind to test every thought, ideology, train of reasoning, and claim to truth."

kk

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

14/07/2012 12:16 AM

On Fri, 13 Jul 2012 23:54:45 -0400, Bill <[email protected]> wrote:

>[email protected] wrote:
>> On Sat, 14 Jul 2012 11:35:40 +1000, F Murtz <[email protected]> wrote:
>>
>>> Huntley K Williams wrote:
>>>> What is a good wood for a beginner to carve?
>>>>
>>> A matter of useless information and a digression,Balsa is a
>>> hardwood,look it up.
>>
>> In that it's not a conifer, sure.
>>
>
>That's not actually the technical distinction between hardwood and
>softwood. Many people just think it is.

Mr. Webster, too, evidently:
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hardwood

Definition of HARDWOOD
1: the wood of an angiospermous tree as distinguished from that of a
coniferous tree
2: a tree that yields hardwood
3: a basketball court


...or:

http://www.yourdictionary.com/hardwood
hardwood

noun

1. any tough, heavy timber with a compact texture
2. Forestry the wood of an angiosperm possessing true vessels, in contrast
to the softwood of a gymnosperm, which lacks vessels
3. a tree yielding hardwood

LJ

Larry Jaques

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

13/07/2012 7:21 PM

On Fri, 13 Jul 2012 20:51:36 -0400, Bill <[email protected]> wrote:

>G. Ross wrote:
>> Huntley K Williams wrote:
>>> What is a good wood for a beginner to carve?
>>>
>> I assumed you meant Balsa. very soft woods like balsa are not good for
>> learning carving. Soft woods require an extremely sharp tool, otherwise
>> they tend to fray.
>>
>> Basswood is probably the better for carving since it is moderately soft
>> and cuts well. Half of learning to carve is learning to sharpen your
>> tools. The other half is practice.
>>
>
>And the other half is learning the history and culture, at least as much
>as possible. A disappointing thing you learn, I think, is that,
>historically, woodcarvers were pretty far down the totem pole. For

+1


>several decades now, I think one of the more profitable aspects of it is
>in teaching others to do it. The beauty of the stylized Acanthus leaves
>changed my life--I have two books dedicated solely to them (which in
>some ways I find silly when I think about it). That's been my secret,
>so please keep it under your hat.

Names, please! I bought a couple of real acanthus plants and was
disappointed that they don't look like the stylized leaves in old
carvings. I like the plants, though.

My favorite book is by Dick Onians. (Huntley, $1.28 at Amazon)
http://tinyurl.com/8327srm

--
Live in the sunshine, swim the sea, drink the wild air…
-- Ralph Waldo Emerson

Cc

Casper

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

03/08/2019 8:13 AM

>[email protected] was heard to mutter:
>Balsam poplar is actually the name of one of the lightest and softest woods.

Skip balsa. It's great for models but rought to carve.

Easy woods are basswood, butternut, jelutong, or cottonwood. You can
carve pine but it gets rough. Maple, walnut and cherry are good but
harder. Basswood is recommended for beginners. Tight grain, usually
blemish free, and very easy to carve by hand.

CS

Clare Snyder

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

03/08/2019 5:45 PM

On Sat, 03 Aug 2019 08:13:08 -0400, Casper <[email protected]>
wrote:

>>[email protected] was heard to mutter:
>>Balsam poplar is actually the name of one of the lightest and softest woods.
>
>Skip balsa. It's great for models but rought to carve.
>
>Easy woods are basswood, butternut, jelutong, or cottonwood. You can
>carve pine but it gets rough. Maple, walnut and cherry are good but
>harder. Basswood is recommended for beginners. Tight grain, usually
>blemish free, and very easy to carve by hand.


+2 on the basswood

GR

"G. Ross"

in reply to [email protected] (Huntley K Williams) on 13/07/2012 2:30 PM

24/06/2013 7:36 PM

whit3rd wrote:
> On Friday, July 13, 2012 8:51:36 PM UTC-4, Bill wrote:
>> G. Ross wrote:
>
>> ... A disappointing thing you learn, I think, is that,
>>
>> historically, woodcarvers were pretty far down the totem pole.
>
> Oh, but the lower figures on the totem pole are the biggest ones,
> the most important! That's consistent with woodcarvers down
> low, the totem pole artist knows he and his fellows are the key players...

Your snipping made it look like I wrote the above, which I did not.
You should have also snipped out my name. But no harm done.

--
 GW Ross 







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